Because scientists and the achievements of science have earned the respect of society at large, the behavior of scientists must accord not only with the expectations of scientific colleagues, but also with those of a larger community. The term “research data” applies to many different forms of scientific information, including raw numbers and field notes, machine tapes and notebooks, edited and categorized observations, interpretations and analyses, derived reagents and vectors, and tables, charts, slides, and photographs. In order to foster good mentorship practices for all research trainees, many groups and institutions have taken steps to clarify the nature of individual and institutional responsibilities in the mentor–trainee relationship.27. However, each experiment is based on conclusions from prior studies; repeated failure of the experiment eventually calls into question those conclusions and leads to reevaluation of the measurements, generality, design, and interpretation of the earlier work. Occasionally, this takes the form of a formal published retraction, especially in situations in which a central claim is found to be fundamentally incorrect or irreproducible. The disciplines have traditionally provided the vital connections between scientific knowledge and its social organization. Academic institutions traditionally have relied on their faculty to ensure that appropriate scientific and disciplinary standards are maintained. As the size of research laboratories expands, the quality of the training environment is at risk (CGS, 1990a). Cooperation, Not Individualism 5. For example, some journalists have criticized several prominent scientists, such as Mendel, Newton, and Millikan, because they “cut corners in order to make their theories prevail” (Broad and Wade, 1982, p. 35). primary data or witnesses to support published reports sometimes has constituted a presumption that the experiments were not conducted as reported.13 Furthermore, there is disagreement about the responsibilities of investigators to provide access to raw data, particularly when the reported results have been challenged by others. But as only one contribution to the efforts of a large research team, a graduate student's work may become highly specialized, leading to a narrowing of experience and greater dependency on senior personnel; in a period when the availability of funding may limit research opportunities, laboratory heads may find it necessary to balance research decisions for the good of the team against the individual educational interests of each trainee. The trainee may choose to work with a faculty member based solely on criteria of patronage, perceived influence, or ability to provide financial support. In science, then, facts are determined by observation or measurement of natural or experimental phenomena. Research directors and department chairs, by virtue of personal example, thus can reinforce, or weaken, the power of disciplinary standards and scientific norms to affect research practices. Scientists communicate research results by a variety of formal and informal means. Some scientists may share materials as part of a collaborative agreement in exchange for co-authorship on resulting publications. Efforts to foster responsible research practices in areas such as data handling, communication and publication, and research training and mentorship deserve encouragement by the entire research community. In resolving competing claims, the interests of individual scientists and research institutions may not always coincide: researchers may be willing to exchange scientific data of possible economic significance without regard for financial or institutional implications, whereas their institutions may wish to establish intellectual property rights and obligations prior to any disclosure. It is common practice for a graduate student to be supervised not only by an individual mentor but also by a committee that represents the graduate department or research field of the student. In the last decade, the methods by which research scientists handle, store, and provide access to research data have received increased scrutiny, owing to conflicts, over ownership, such as those described by Nelkin (1984); advances in the methods and technologies that are used to collect, retain, and share data; and the costs of data storage. selves were carefully and correctly performed. For example, theories derived from observations in the field of evolutionary biology lack a great deal of predictive power. Huth (1988) suggests a “notice of fraud or notice of suspected fraud” issued by the journal editor to call attention to the controversy (p. 38). Scientific Principles. 311-312). A fruitful hypothesis may develop into a theory after substantial observational or experimental support has accumulated. In evaluating practices that guide research endeavors, it is important to consider the individual character of scientific fields. It requires that management should create suitable working condition and solve all problems scientifically. Thus planning is to be separated from execution. This practice seems to.have been abandoned for reasons that are not well understood. For more complete discussions of peer review in the wider context, see, for example, Cole et al. 12. In some research fields, for example, concerns are being raised about how the increasing size and diverse composition of research groups affect the quality of the relationship between trainee and mentor. As Chapter 3 observes, the lawâ s admission of and reliance on forensic evidence in criminal trials … The power of the disciplines to shape research practices and standards is derived from their ability to provide a common frame of reference in evaluating the significance of new discoveries and theories in science. If not properly resolved, these problems may weaken the integrity of the research process. Scientific principles at work: This demonstrates the concepts of surface tension and cohesion. This course provides an introduction to the chemistry of biological, inorganic, and organic molecules. Selected examples of academic research conduct policies and guidelines are included in Volume II of this report. © 2020 National Academy of Sciences. Some government research institutions and industrial research centers maintain such repositories to safeguard the record of research developments for scientific, historical, proprietary, and national security interests. You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. When the behavior of research directors or department chairs diverges from expectations for good practice, however, the expected norms of science become ambiguous, and their effects are thus weakened. 22. 1. There should be scientifically designed procedure for the selection of workers. (1990). Many individuals excel in providing guidance and instruction as well as personal support, and some mentors are resourceful in providing funds and securing professional opportunities for their trainees. The self-regulatory system that characterizes the research process has evolved from a diverse set of principles, traditions, standards, and customs transmitted from senior scientists, research directors, and department chairs to younger scientists by example, discussion, and informal education. Others have noted that although it may be desirable to limit the number of trainees assigned to a senior investigator, there is insufficient information at this time to suggest that numbers alone significantly affect the quality of research supervision (IOM, 1989a, p. 33). Journal submission dates are often important in establishing priority and intellectual property claims. Some organizations, such as the American Chemical Society, have adopted policies to address these concerns (ACS, 1986). Note that these general guidelines exclude the provision of reagents or facilities or the supervision of research as a criteria of authorship. 38. The task of systematizing and extending the understanding of the universe is advanced by eliminating disproved ideas and by formulating new tests of others until one emerges as the most probable explanation for any given observed phenomenon. 10. It is a violation of the most fundamental aspect of the scientific research process to set forth measurements that have not, in fact, been performed (fabrication) or to ignore or change relevant data that contradict the reported findings (falsification). You must do the best you can—if you know anything at all wrong, or possibly wrong—to explain it. 7. Accordingly, the panel emphasizes the following conclusions: The panel believes that the existing self-regulatory system in science is sound. Moreover, the demands of obtaining sufficient resources to maintain a laboratory in the contemporary research environment often separate faculty from their trainees. Management Study Guide is a complete tutorial for management students, where students can learn the basics as well as advanced concepts related to management and its related subjects. This means replacement of odd rule of thumb by the use of method of enquiry, investigation, data collection, analysis and framing of rules. Although there are many ways to ensure responsible mentorship, methods that provide continuous feedback, whether through formal or informal mechanisms, are apt to be the most successful (CGS, 1990a). enforceable by any court, but the principles therein laid down are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws. According to Taylor efforts should be made to develop each employee to his greatest level and efficiency & prosperity. Research scientists are part of a larger human society that has recently experienced profound changes in attitudes about ethics, morality, and accountability in business, the professions, and government. Basic principles of forensic science By Dave Barclay. Who determines who can give talks on the experiment? This knowledge is based on explanatory principles whose verifiable consequences can be tested by independent observers. For example, NSF staff have commented, “Unless we can arrange real returns or incentives for the original investigator, either in financial support or in professional recognition, another researcher's request for sharing is likely to present itself as ‘hassle'—an unwelcome nuisance and diversion. More commonly, a somewhat different version of the original experiment, or a revised interpretation of the original result, is published as part of a subsequent report that extends in other ways the initial work. As the recipients of federal funds and the institutional sponsors of research activities, administrative officers must comply with regulatory and legal requirements that accompany public support. Peer review is also used by funding agencies to seek advice concerning the quality and promise of proposals for research support. Although some have proposed that these principles should be written down and formalized,2 the principles and traditions of science are, for the most part, conveyed to successive generations of scientists through example, discussion, and informal education. Authorship practices are guided by disciplinary traditions, customary practices within research groups, and professional and journal standards and policies.16 There is general acceptance of the principle that each named author has made a significant intellectual contribution to the paper, even though there remains substantial disagreement over the types of contributions that are judged to be significant. Scientific experiments and measurements are transformed into research data. In fact, the two tiers are interrelated, and the goals and traditions of science mandate major responsibilities in both areas for individual investigators. Even within a discipline, experimentalists engage in research practices that differ from the procedures followed by theorists. Others have placed greater emphasis on major contributions as the basis for evaluating research productivity. The report catalogued the benefits of data sharing, including maintaining the integrity of the research process by providing independent opportunities for verification, refutation, or refinement of original results and data; promoting new research and the development and testing of new theories; and encouraging appropriate use of empirical data in policy formulation and evaluation. The management should assume the responsibility of planning the work whereas workers should be concerned with execution of task. In the best experimental systems, it is common that relatively few variables have been identified and that even fewer can be controlled experimentally. There will be more production and economical growth at a faster rate. Plagiarism. Methods and techniques of experimentation, styles of communicating findings. Questions of authorship in science are intimately connected with issues of credit and responsibility. In the past decade, the societies' codes of ethics—which historically have been exhortations to uphold high standards of professional behavior —have incorporated specific guidelines relevant to authorship practices, data management, training and mentoring, conflict of interest, reporting research findings, treatment of confidential or proprietary information, and addressing error or misconduct. Scientists operate within a system designed for continuous testing, where corrections and new findings are announced in refereed scientific publications. Editors of scientific journals share these last two responsibilities. Editors can clarify and insist on the confidentiality of review and take appropriate actions against reviewers who violate it. Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors: All materials have electrical properties that allow them to be organized into three broad categories: conductors, insulators and semiconductors. One group convened by the Institute of Medicine has suggested “that the university has a responsibility to ensure that the size of a research unit does not outstrip the mentor's ability to maintain adequate supervision” (IOM, 1989a, p. 85). To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. 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